Did You Know?
The U.S. posted the lowest savings rate in 1993 for all industrialized nations.
As early as 2017, Social Security may only cover 20% of the average person’s retirement needs. Private pensions and other retirement plans may only cover about 30-40% . The balance will have to come from personal savings and other investments.
Up to three-quarters of all Americans approaching retirement are investing too conservatively to meet their needs.
Over the course of your lifetime, a fortune will pass through your hands. The way you manage and spend that money will determine the kind of world you live in.
Six basic things you should consider:
Getting Started
Covering Your Bases
Choosing Investments
Fundamentals of Investing
Retirement: Save Early, Save Often
Taxes: Give me Shelter

Getting Started

The first step toward a sound financial plan is to determine where you are financially and how you got there. Look at your net worth - the difference between your assets and liabilities - and cash flow - the money flowing in and out of your wallet and checking account. Also take account of:

• your personal assets and liabilities,
• your health and happiness,
• how you spend your time, and
• who you can turn to in the event of a crisis.

Your plan should enable you to do what is important to you.

Net Worth = Assets - Liabilities

To calculate your net worth, list all of your assets, including:

• cash on hand,
• investments,
• the market value of possessions like your house, car and furnishings,
• Social Security and other government benefits, and
• employer-provided benefits, such as group life insurance or profit-sharing programs.

Your liabilities are the amounts you still owe lenders for mortgages, car and student loans, and any credit card debts. Subtract your liabilities from your assets and you have your net worth.

Next figure your cash flow, or budget. Everything that contributes to your monthly income and expenses. Any income above your outgoing expenses can go toward building your financial future. If your expenses are greater than your income, however, you would be wise to eliminate some unnecessary spending or increase your income. Financial planners recommend looking at net worth and cash flow at least once a year so you can quickly adapt to changes in your financial situation.

Where does this leave you? To evaluate your overall financial situation you must first Identify short-, medium- and long-term goals. Short-term goals could include buying a home computer, taking a vacation, or continuing an education. Buying a home or sending your kids to college could be medium-term goals. Achieving financial independence, planning your retirement or starting a business could be long-term goals.

You do not have to commit money to your goals all at once, but you do need to prioritize them. By saving for long-term goals early, your money has more time to grow and compound and you will end up with much more in the long run.

Covering Your Bases

A financial plan’s foundation includes:

• handling your living expenses comfortably,
• keeping adequate emergency reserves,
• protecting yourself and your family with insurance and
• making investments to help reach future goals.

Financial planners recommend saving at least 10% of your take-home pay. (And that’s if you start saving for your retirement in your 30s; the longer you wait to get started, the more you’ll have to save.) You should put this money aside first thing each month so that you won’t be tempted to spend it. Budget your expenses around what’s left.

Create your own emergency fund to cover unexpected expenses, such as sudden illness, or major car or house repairs. A reserve of two to six months’ of living expenses can prevent the need to dip into your savings. Set aside a small amount each month and keep it in a bank savings account, money market fund with check writing privileges, or other readily available place.

Insurance is designed to protect you from major financial losses such as death, disability, large medical expenses, or loss or destruction of your property. Choose the type(s) and amount of insurance that provide(s) the most security for you and your family.

In short, before you begin investing you should:

• make sure your income exceeds your expenses
• set up an emergency fund
• secure adequate insurance
• consider owning a house (mortgage interest is tax-deductible)
• consider buying a tax-deferred Individual Retirement Account (IRA)
• bring your debt repayment under control

Choosing Investments

Choosing your investments depends on your age, dependents, income, capital, tax bracket and your values. Compare the liquidity, rate of return, safety and tax benefits of each investment you consider, and view these with your situation and goals in mind. The most common investment vehicles are savings and checking accounts, certificates of deposit (CDs), money market funds, mutual funds, corporate stocks, government and corporate bonds, and U.S. agency or Treasury obligations (T-bills). Here are some of the major choices:

Checking and savings accounts are no-risk, low-yield investments used mainly for money that must be safe and available.

A certificate of deposit (CD) is a deposit made, usually to a bank, for a specified amount of time for a specified rate. Terms vary between one and 120 months, with penalties for early withdrawal. Because the interest rates are only slightly higher than a savings account, certificates of deposit are usually good for short- term investments only.

Treasury bills or T-bills offer a guaranteed return backed by the U.S. Treasury. Minimum purchases are usually between $1,000 and $10,000 and maturities range from three months to 30 years. You can purchase them through banks, branches of the Federal Reserve Bank or through stockbrokers.

Corporate or common stock is a purchase of a piece of a corporation’s net worth. When a corporation succeeds, so do its owners - and when it fails, so do its owners. It’s worth consulting financial advisers or stockbrokers when investing in stocks. But keep in mind that you should allow plenty of time for a return; quick profits are rare. Don’t buy individual stocks unless you can diversify by investing in at least five companies in different industries. And remember, it’s more economical to buy in “lots” of at least 100; the transaction cost you pay will be less. To diversify broadly and minimize costs, many investors use mutual funds instead of buying individual stocks  Financial planners often recommend automatically reinvesting your dividends to purchase more shares of stock.

Bond ownership makes you a creditor of a corporation or a government. You loan money and receive a fixed interest rate for the use of it. At the maturity date, you receive all of your principal. However, before the maturity date, the market value is not guaranteed. The value of a bond may increase or decrease depending on changes in interest rates and credit quality. Corporate bonds are usually backed by collateral, or a promise to pay. It’s prudent to check the financial standing of the corporation before purchasing a bond, and the rating of a bond by a professional bond-rating service.

A money market fund is relatively safe, liquid and low-risk. Many offer check-writing privileges. A money market fund is a pool of money invested in high-yielding, short-term vehicles. They allow you to buy a share in a diversified mix of investments that you as an individual would likely not be able to duplicate. As an investor, you receive a share of the yield realized from the fund’s investments. The rate of return for money market funds is usually higher than for a checking account, but the minimum investment is higher, usually $1,000. Like all uninsured products, the yield will fluctuate with varying market conditions

Mutual funds generally invest in common stocks and bonds and offer automatic, broad diversification. Investing in a mutual fund is buying a share of the fund’s portfolio - its particular collection of stocks and bonds. Your investment entitles you to share any dividends or interest income earned by the stocks and bonds, as well as any profits or losses realized from the sale of these securities.

Mutual funds do not guarantee return and pose a higher risk than a savings or money market account. Your principal is at risk. However, investments in one or more mutual funds offer more diversity and greater potential returns than investing directly in the stocks and bonds of a small number of companies. They are generally suited to investors who are looking for diversification and professional management, but lack the resources, time or desire to deal with the research and paperwork that stock investments require.
Some mutual funds invest in a spectrum of securities while others focus on a particular industry or geographical area. Each fund has a stated investment objective outlined in its prospectus. Socially responsible mutual funds also outline their social and environmental criteria in their prospectuses. I

f your objective is long-term appreciation of your investment, look for a growth fund. If you hope to use your return as current income, look for an income fund. A balanced or “growth and income” fund invests in high dividend stocks as well as fixed-income securities that provide for both.

Fundamentals of Investing

Think of your investment strategy as a pyramid. (See diagram).

Reducing Your Risk:

The Pyramid Approach

The pyramid’s base is your foundation, the area where you store the largest portion of your resources. The base includes the money you want to keep safe (low risk with predictable return), and liquid, such as your emergency fund. It also includes the assets you hold for your security such as insurance policies or your home.

If you accumulate assets and feel confident about taking a risk with some of them, you can consider adding investments to the midsection of the pyramid. They can offer a higher return, and more potential for growth and income. You might add mutual funds or high quality stocks. The peak of the pyramid is reserved exclusively for money that you can afford to lose. There are higher risk investments that offer higher potential for return, such as aggressive growth mutual funds, stocks in start-up companies, and commodities.

Key Investment Concepts

Compounding. One of the easiest ways to make your nest egg grow is to reinvest dividends and interest. By simply rolling over these funds, you can make it possible for your investment to flourish. If you had invested $100 in a typical stock at the end of 1926 and spent all of the dividend payments, you would have ended up with less than $3,000 by 1990. If you had reinvested the dividends, you would have had more than $55,000 to your credit!

Asset allocation. This sounds complicated, but all it means is how you divide your investment funds between the three major categories: stocks, bonds, and cash or cash equivalents. (Checking accounts and money-market funds are considered cash equivalents because they are so liquid.) Younger investors will tend to have more money in aggressive stocks with strong growth potential.

Older investors, seeking to generate steady income and preserve their capital, will tend to have more in cash and bonds. One good rule of thumb: take your age and put a percentage sign behind it. Never let your cash holdings (the most conservative and, as a result, lowest-returning investments) exceed the resulting percentage.

Diversification. As is true in most things in life, it doesn’t pay to put all of your eggs in one basket when investing. You can cut your risk of suffering major losses by spreading out your investments across stocks, bonds, and cash, as well as across more than one mutual fund. You should also seek diversification among the types of stocks and mutual funds in which you invest.

Rather than putting all of your assets in high-tech mutual funds, you may also wish to have substantial portions of your nest egg in international funds and tax- free municipal bond funds. The idea is to decrease your exposure to risk and to increase your potential for profit by having at least some of your money in the right place at the right time.

Retirement: Save Early, Save Often

Savvy retirement planning starts with your first job and never ends. The security in Social Security is slipping and pensions are shrinking as employers re-examine benefit packages. No matter what your age, figuring retirement income into your financial plan is vital. How much you set aside for retirement depends on your age, your income, how much you want at retirement and when you plan to retire. Remember, saving early and often allows the magic of compounding to work for you.

Open an Individual Retirement Account (IRA) if you can. No tax is paid on any of its dividends, interests or gains until you withdraw. If you’re employed, you can contribute up to $2,000 a year while claiming a tax deduction for that amount, depending on your income level, marital status and participation in a company pension plan. Upon retirement, your tax bracket will likely be lower.

IRAs can be invested in many securities including bank certificates, mutual funds and money market funds which offer professional management of your investment. You can also choose a self-directed IRA for which you or your financial planner buy and sell securities and manage your own investments.

Since the purpose of IRAs is retirement saving, withdrawals are subject to heavy penalties before age 59¹/₂, unless you become disabled. If you’re over that age and still earning, IRAs make an ideal savings account since you can enjoy the tax advantages and be free from penalty withdrawals. You can contribute to your IRA up to the age of 70¹/₂. Then you must start taking distributions, but you can still contribute if you are earning wage income.

For guaranteed monthly income for life, consider an annuity. Annuities are purchased from insurance companies with a single or periodic payments. As with an IRA, the income accumulates tax-free until you begin withdrawals.

Annuity payout options available at retirement:

• A straight life annuity pays income monthly from retirement through death, with no benefits to anyone at your death.
• A life annuity with “installments certain” pays you income for life, with a specified minimum number of years, so that if you die the balance of the income promised to you goes to your beneficiary.
• A refund annuity pays you for life or until the payouts equal the premium paid. If you die before then, your beneficiary receives a refund.

When choosing an annuity plan, compare companies for service charges or loads. Since income payments on annuities are fixed, they won’t keep up with inflation. An annuity is an investment, so keep in mind the minimum interest rate guarantee, the current interest rate, and penalties for withdrawal.

Check with your employer about employer-sponsored 401(k) for “for-profit” companies and 403(b) plans for people working for nonprofit organizations. Both allow savings to accumulate and compound tax-free until retirement.

Self-employed people can have an IRA as well as a Keogh plan that allows them to save up to $30,000 or 25% of their income, whichever is less, on a tax-deferred basis.

A Simplified Employee Pension Plan (SEP), a special type of IRA designed to be an easy-to-manage-retirement plan for small companies allows the employer or self-employed individual to contribute 15% of a worker’s income or $30,000, whichever is less, on a tax-deferred basis. The money can be put in any of the investment vehicles you would use for an IRA, and the withdrawal rules are the same. You can contribute as long as you are earning income even past age 70¹/₂.

A SEP can also include a salary reduction arrangement. Under this arrangement, employees can elect to have part of their pay contributed to their SEP-IRA. The tax on the part contributed is deferred. Your employer needs to sponsor this type of arrangement, but it is worth finding out if yours does, because up to $9,240 can be deferred each calendar year.

It’s best to check with a tax planner or investment adviser first because rules about these plans are complicated. However, as is true of all aspects of financial planning, the most important thing is to get started now!

Taxes: Give Me Shelter

There are ways to save on taxes that can fit into a financial plan.  Home ownership can help, especially if you buy in a good location at a good price, and stay put, at least for several years. You can deduct the interest you pay on your mortgage loan.

Financial advisers encourage investing in retirement plans, especially those offered by employers. If you are saving for retirement through an Individual Retirement Account (IRA) and/or work retirement plan (tax-sheltered annuity, 401(k), 403( b) , or 457) you get the triple advantage of tax-deferred compounding: the interest and dividends earned on your principal, the interest you earn on those interest and dividend earnings, and the interest you earn on the dollars you otherwise would have paid in taxes. These all grow and compound tax-free over the years. Taxes are due upon withdrawal in your retirement years when your tax bracket is likely to be lower.

The interest earned on municipal bonds is totally exempt from federal income taxes, and often state and local taxes as well. Congress has allowed this type of tax- sheltered investment opportunity to encourage investors to support the development of local and regional infrastructure - schools, roads, hospitals, libraries, sewer and water systems. Investors can buy into diversified pools of tax-free municipal bonds through mutual funds. As always, it’s best to consult a professional tax or financial adviser when considering tax-sheltered investments.

There are many ways to donate investments to your favorite charities and social change organizations that can provide tax deductions for you and allow you to continue to receive interest and dividends from the principal, or that will reduce the estate tax burden on your heirs.

Whatever your situation, you can be a responsible investor and let your values guide your investments. You can withhold money from businesses whose products or practices conflict with your values, and direct it toward low-income housing, minority-owned enterprises, renewable energy - whatever you want to support. Financial professionals can help you build a responsible portfolio

A mass of ice the size of Luxembourg (2,500 square kilometers) has broken away from the language of the Mertz Glacier in East Antarctica when it hit the tongue a giant iceberg adrift known as B-9B, as revealed by images taken by satellites. The collision occurred three weeks ago and now the two icebergs, which together weigh 700 million tons, floating aimlessly.

Scientists fear that this phenomenon affects the ocean circulation around the world and the marine life in the region.

The concern is that this ice-mass displacement of the iceberg the size of Luxembourg could supply water to one third of the world population during a year, alter the composition of seawater in the area and the normal flow of salt water dense and cold that carries oxygen to the deep ocean currents.

“The end of the ice tongue could reduce the level of salinity in the ocean and affect the life cycle of the sea,” said Rob Massoma, one of the scientists responsible for the Australian Antarctic Division, told Reuters . According to Mario Hoppema, an oceanographer at the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany, “as a result of this phenomenon may have lost oxygen ocean areas and, consequently, marine life die in there.”

Massoma has stressed that the release of ice Mertz is not related to climate change, but has to do with the natural movements of the ice sheets.

The iceberg B-9B is what remains of a larger, 5,000 square kilometers, which broke off in 1987, becoming one of the largest ice mass in Antarctica. This gigantic iceberg was drifting westward before running aground in 1992. Recently, he released her, being next to the Mertz.

According to UN experts, the world is not aware of the serious consequences that climate change poses to water. It is necessary that we strengthen our protection of water resources to avoid future conflicts.

Desertification, floods, melting glaciers, droughts, cyclones and diseases due to water pollution such as cholera, are part of the impact of climate change. According to Zafar Adeel, president of the “UN-WATER” and responsible for coordinating the work related to water carrying 26 UN agencies, “The main manifestations of rising temperatures affect water. This will impact all instances of our social life, in natural systems and the environment. “

These radical changes could threaten agriculture or freshwater resources from Africa to the Middle East. “It is in this geographical area of residence of the potential conflicts Zafar Adeel added. Water shortages as occurred in Darfur, Sudan, is a factor in conflict.

However, Zafar Adeel said that water could be a subject of cooperation and collaboration, as has been demonstrated on several occasions, as when India and Pakistan worked together to manage the river Indus in spite of border disputes between two countries. The same thing happened with Vietnam, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, countries that collaborated in the development of the Mekong River Commission.

“Water is a good reason to cooperate, and can be managed as a matter absolutely apolitical,” said Zafar Adeel, who is also director of the Institute for Water, Environment and Health “of the United Nations University, based in Canada.

The drought-prone regions because of climate change are between central Asia and North Africa. Until 2020, approximately 250 million people could suffer from water shortages in Africa, says a group of environmental experts from the United Nations.

According to Zafar Adeel, the water should figure prominently in discussions on food security, peace, climate change and the restoration of global economic health. “Water is a key issue in each of these issues, but is not considered as such.”

Efforts to combat climate change will put even greater pressure on water due to economic needs associated with irrigation, biofuels and hydropower.

Zafar Adeel also advanced efforts to manage water resources listing the amount of water needed for the development or production of different products, from meat to coffee. A study showed that to produce jeans were required 15,000 liters of water. The awareness by industry of the amount of water used is much needed for its conservation.

Zafar Adeel said the world should aim to halve the number of people without access to drinking water until 2015, although it will not achieve the aim of improving the sanitary conditions of the 2,800 million people without access to most basic health services.

The Apocalypse and call it news because of its recurrence have given a name: Part. The second major snowstorm in less than a week began to bury the U.S. Northeast last night and continues unabated today.

When the nation’s capital began to ‘dug up’, another 25 inches of snow have frustrated snow removal services today are stretched to clear the streets and roads. Washington is now paralyzed. The federal government has declared that all its buildings will remain closed during the day and there is no public transport system, either bus or metro. New York City is practically a blank. Philadelphia and Baltimore have suffered the same fate. 

The airports are closed and hundreds of flights have been canceled, which meant that the traffic chaos due to the storm of last week now join thousands of passengers were trapped in different cities in the U.S. without returning to their places of origin.

Schools in Washington and New York have decreed the closure of the classes, affecting more than two million students. Snowplow crews are working shifts of 16 hours and still see how the steps are re-opened white cover in minutes. By some estimates, the amount of snow was coming in Washington obtained the absolute record since 1884, first year it began to snow accumulation register.

Supermarkets recall images of the former Soviet Union, with empty shelves and shortages of staples. The power outage affected the Washington region in more than 250,000 people, in some cases, have no electricity or heating and nearly a week. The forecasts are not optimistic, since “Apocalypse, Part Two” has not only complicate the already started rescue work, with hundreds of fallen trees that have dragged down to the old electrical system that is so representative of the panorama Washingtonian, with cables and Outdoor cables deployed more houses and lampposts. The National Weather Service continuously broadcasts warnings and warning against leaving the house because of the enormous danger it represents.

Up to one fifth of global CO2 emissions are due to indiscriminate felling of trees. This, while impoverishing the soil and leaves it vulnerable to erosion and water evaporation, further contributing to climate change. With increasing drought and human pressure on forest cover, it is in danger.

Because climate change is expected to increase in droughts and fires. In many cases fires are associated with deforestation, whose accelerating effect on desertification is known. Often, due to logging is seeking to implement intensive monoculture soils highly demanding in energy, water, fertilizers and toxic oil that contaminate groundwater and surface water.

The loss of forests and species affect everyone’s life with disproportionate economic costs in poor countries and developing countries.

Greenpeace calls for urgently undertake a serious struggle at international level to stop the deforestation caused by the irresponsible use of forest resources extraction and burning of forests to introduce livestock and even crops such as soybeans, largely for animal feed from countries industrialized.

The organization also calls for not using carbon sinks as a means to account for CO2 emissions reductions in the Kyoto Protocol mechanisms. There is no scientific evidence that these gases were captured by the vegetation can not easily go back into the atmosphere - because of fire, natural decay or harvesting of firewood.

The intensity and recurrence of forest fires are having dramatic effects on our soil, with effects irreversible in some cases. The steep slopes also increase soil erosion generating increasingly less productive. Avenues, flooding, silting of reservoirs and desertification are the result of repeated passage of fire for our ecosystems.

Greenhouse Gases :

Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere have historically varied as a result of many
natural processes (e.g. volcanic activity, changes in temperature, etc). However, since the
Industrial Revolution humans have added a significant amount of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere by burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests and other activities. Because
greenhouse gases absorb and emit heat, increasing their concentrations in the atmosphere
will tend to have a warming effect. But the rate and amount of temperature increase is not
known with absolute certainty. Changes in the atmospheric concentration of the major
greenhouse gases are described below:

Carbon dioxide (CO2) : concentrations in the atmosphere
increased from approximately 280 parts per million (ppm)
in pre-industrial times to 382 ppm in 2006 according to the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA)
Earth Systems Research Laboratory, a 36 percent
increase. Almost all of the increase is due to human
activities (IPCC, 2007). The current rate of increase in CO2
concentrations is about 1.9 ppmv/year. Present CO2
concentrations are higher than any time in at least the last
650,000 years (IPCC, 2007). See Figure 1 for a record of CO2
concentrations from about 420,000 years ago to present.
For more information on the human and natural sources of

Methane (CH4) is more abundant in the Earth’s atmosphere now
than at any time in at least the past 650,000 years (IPCC, 2007).
Methane concentrations increased sharply during most of the 20th
century and are now 148% above pre-industrial levels. In recent
decades, the rate of increase has slowed considerably (see Figure 2).
For more information on CH4 emissions and sources, and actions that
can reduce emissions, see EPA’s Methane Site.

Nitrous oxide (N2O): has increased approximately 18 percent in the
past 200 years and continues to increase (see Figure 3). For about
11,500 years before the industrial period, the concentration of N2O
varied only slightly. It increased relatively rapidly toward the end of
the 20th century (IPCC, 2007).

* Tropospheric ozone (O3) is created by chemical reactions from automobile,
power plant and other industrial and commercial source emissions in the presence
of sunlight. It is estimated that O3 has increased by about 36% since the pre-industrial era,
although substantial variations exist for regions and overall trends (IPCC, 2007).
Besides being a greenhouse gas, ozone can also be a harmful air pollutant at ground level,
especially for people with respiratory diseases and children and adults who are active outdoors.
Measures are being taken to reduce ozone emissions in the U.S. (through the Clean Air Act)
and also in other countries.
* Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are used in coolants,
foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides and aerosol propellants. These compounds
have steadily increased in the atmosphere since their introduction in 1928. Concentrations are slowly
declining as a result of their phaseout via the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer.
* Fluorinated gases such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6) are frequently used as substitutes for CFCs and HCFCs and are increasing in
the atmosphere. These various fluorinated gases are sometimes called “high global warming potential
greenhouse gases” because, molecule for molecule, they trap more heat than CO2. For more information,
visit EPA’s High Global Warming Potential Gases Site.

Aerosols :

The burning of fossil fuels and biomass (living matter such as vegetation) has resulted in aerosol
emissions into the atmosphere. Aerosols absorb and emit heat, reflect light and, depending on their
properties, can either cool or warm the atmosphere. NASA’s Earth Observatory describes how
aerosols can also affect how clouds form.

* Sulfate aerosols are emitted when fuel containing sulfur, such as coal and oil, is burned.
Sulfate aerosols reflect solar radiation back to space and have a cooling effect. These aerosols
have decreased in concentration in the past two decades resulting from efforts to reduce the
coal-fired power plant emissions of sulfur dioxide in the United States and other countries.
* Black carbon (or soot) results from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass
burning (forest fires and land clearing) and is believed to contribute to global warming (IPCC, 2007).
Though global concentrations are likely increasing, there are significant regional differences. In the
United States and many other countries, efforts to reduce particulate matter (of which black carbon
is a part) are lowering black carbon concentrations.
* Other aerosols emitted in small quantities from human activities include organic carbon and
associated aerosols from biomass burning. Mineral dust aerosols (e.g., from deserts and lake beds)
largely originate from natural sources, but their distribution can be affected by human activities.

Radiative Forcing :

Radiative forcing is the change in the balance between solar radiation entering the atmosphere and the Earth’s radiation going
out. On average, a positive radiative forcing tends to warm the surface of the Earth while negative forcing tends to cool
the surface. Radiative forcing is measured in Watts per square meter, which is a measure of energy. For example, an increase in
radiative forcing of +1 Watt per square meter is like shining one small holiday tree light bulb over every square meter of the Earth.

Green earth which usually utters greenhouse. Greenhouse gases have a positive radiative forcing because they absorb and emit heat. Aerosols can have a positive or negative
radiative forcing, depending on how they absorb and emit heat and/or reflect light. For example, black carbon aerosols - which have
a positive forcing - more effectively absorb and emit heat than sulfates, which have a negative forcing and more effectively reflect light.
The following are estimates of the change in radiative forcing in the year 2005 relative to 1750 for different components of the climate.

Air Pollution

Contamination of the air by noxious gases and minute particles of solid and liquid matter (particulates) in concentrations that endanger health. The major sources of air pollution are transportation engines, power and heat generation, industrial processes, and the burning of solid waste.

Sources of Air Pollution :

The combustion of gasoline and other hydrocarbon fuels in automobiles, trucks, and jet airplanes produces several primary pollutants: nitrogen oxides, gaseous hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide, as well as large quantities of particulates, chiefly lead. In the presence of sunlight, nitrogen oxides combine with hydrocarbons to form a secondary class of pollutants, the photochemical oxidants, among them ozone and the eye-stinging peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN). Nitrogen oxides also react with oxygen in the air to form nitrogen dioxide, a foul-smelling brown gas. In urban areas like Los Angeles where transportation is the main cause of air pollution, nitrogen dioxide tints the air, blending with other contaminants and the atmospheric water vapor to produce brown smog. Although the use of catalytic converters has reduced smog-producing compounds in motor vehicle exhaust emissions, recent studies have shown that in so doing the converters produce nitrous oxide, which contributes substantially to global warming.
In cities, air may be severely polluted not only by transportation but also by the burning of fossil fuels (oil and coal) in generating stations, factories, office buildings, and homes and by the incineration of garbage. The massive combustion produces tons of ash, soot, and other particulates responsible for the gray smog of cities like New York and Chicago, along with enormous quantities of sulfur oxides. These oxides rust iron, damage building stone, decompose nylon, tarnish silver, and kill plants. Air pollution from cities also affects rural areas for many miles downwind.
Every industrial process exhibits its own pattern of air pollution. Petroleum refineries are responsible for extensive hydrocarbon and particulate pollution. Iron and steel mills, metal smelters, pulp and paper mills, chemical plants, cement and asphalt plants—all discharge vast amounts of various particulates. Uninsulated high-voltage power lines ionize the adjacent air, forming ozone and other hazardous pollutants. Airborne pollutants from other sources include insecticides, herbicides, radioactive fallout, and dust from fertilizers, mining operations, and livestock feedlots.

Effects on Health and the Environment :

Like photochemical pollutants, sulfur oxides contribute to the incidence of respiratory diseases. Acid rain, a form of precipitation that contains high levels of sulfuric or nitric acids, can contaminate drinking water and vegetation, damage aquatic life, and erode buildings. When a weather condition known as a temperature inversion prevents dispersal of smog, inhabitants of the area, especially children and the elderly and chronically ill, are warned to stay indoors and avoid physical stress. The dramatic and debilitating effects of severe air pollution episodes in cities throughout the world—such as the London smog of 1952 that resulted in 4,000 deaths—have alerted governments to the necessity for crisis procedures. Even everyday levels of air pollution may insidiously affect health and behavior. Indoor air pollution is a problem in developed countries, where efficient insulation keeps pollutants inside the structure. In less developed nations, the lack of running water and indoor sanitation can encourage respiratory infections. Carbon monoxide, for example, by driving oxygen out of the bloodstream, causes apathy, fatigue, headache, disorientation, and decreased muscular coordination and visual acuity.

Air pollution may possibly harm populations in ways so subtle or slow that they have not yet been detected. For that reason research is now under way to assess the long-term effects of chronic exposure to low levels of air pollution—what most people experience—as well as to determine how air pollutants interact with one another in the body and with physical factors such as nutrition, stress, alcohol, cigarette smoking, and common medicines. Another subject of investigation is the relation of air pollution to cancer, birth defects, and genetic mutations.

A recently discovered result of air pollution is an increasing “hole” in the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica, coupled with growing evidence of global ozone depletion. This can increase the amount of ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth, where it damages crops and plants and can lead to skin cancer and cataracts. This depletion has been caused largely by the emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from refrigerators, air conditioners, and aerosols. The Montreal Protocol of 1987 required that developed nations signing the accord not exceed 1986 CFC levels. Several more meetings were held from 1990 to 1997 to adopt agreements to accelerate the phasing out of ozone-depleting substances.

Solutions to Air Pollution :

To combat pollution in the United States, the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 gave the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to establish and enforce air pollution standards and to set emission standards for new factories and extremely hazardous industrial pollutants. The states were required to meet “ambient air quality standards” by regulating the emissions of various pollutants from existing stationary sources, such as power plants and incinerators, in part by the installation of smokestack scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, and other filters. Auto manufacturers were mandated to install exhaust controls or develop less polluting engines. The Clean Air Act, as amended in 1977, authorized the EPA to impose stricter pollution standards and higher penalties for failure to comply with air quality standards.

In 1990 when the act was reauthorized it required most cities to meet existing smog reduction regulations by the year 2005. The 1990 amendments also expanded the scope and strength of the regulations for controlling industrial pollution. The result has been limited progress in reducing the quantities of sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, ozone, particulate matter, and lead in the air. The EPA also regulated hazardous air pollutants, which in 1992 included mercury, beryllium, asbestos, vinylchloride, benzene, radioactive substances, and inorganic arsenic.

The most satisfactory long-term solutions to air pollution may well be the elimination of fossil fuels and the ultimate replacement of the internal-combustion engine. To these ends efforts have begun in the United States, Japan, and Europe to develop alternative energy sources (see energy, sources of), as well as different kinds of transportation engines, perhaps powered by electricity or steam. A system of pollution allowances based on trading emission rights has been established in the United States in an attempt to use the free market to reward pollution reductions, and the international sale of surplus emission rights is permitted under the Kyoto Protocol (see below). Other proposed solutions include raising electricity and gasoline rates to better reflect environmental costs and to discourage waste and inefficiency, and mechanical controls on coal-fired utility plants.

In 1992, 150 nations signed a treaty on global warming at the UN-sponsored summit on the environment in Rio de Janeiro. A UN Conference on Climate Change, held in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997, produced an international agreement to combat global warming by sharply reducing emissions of industrial gases. Although the United States abandoned the treaty in 2001, saying it was counter to U.S. interests, most other nations agreed that year on the details necessary to make the protocol a binding international treaty.

Nuclear energy is a controversial topic. Proponents call it the most viable, currently available resource for meeting the world’s growing energy needs, while protagonists say that the by-product of nuclear energy—nuclear waste—has created one of the greatest problems of the 20th century. Learn about the environmental and political issues surrounding nuclear energy and nuclear waste, and what’s being done to address them.

EPA Poised to Regulate Nuclear Waste Disposal for a Million Years :
The U.S. government may have a long reach, but trying to regulate nuclear waste disposal for 1 million years is a stretch even for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. But that is what the EPA is trying to do, following a court decision that said a regulatory plan for 10,000 years wasn’t long enough to deal with the toxic effects of nuclear waste.
Chernobyl Nuclear Accident :
A detailed profile of the Chernobyl accident, the worst nuclear accident in history, which occurred on April 26, 1986, at the Chernobyl power plant in Ukraine.
Hanford Cleanup Still Has a Long Way To Go :
Although some progress is being made, particularly groundwater cleanup in certain areas, some regulators and activists fear that the government is making the Hanford cleanup a low priority and spending too little money to get the job done.
How Nuclear Power Works :
An illustrated, easy-to-understand guide to the ins and outs of nuclear power generation.
Sierra Club: Nuclear Waste Task Force :
The amount of nuclear waste is growing at an alarming rate, and no country in the world has developed a plan for permanently isolating and disposing of it. As a result, the Sierra Club has declared nuclear waste one of the world’s most serious environmental issues, and has formed a task force to work on the problem.
Nuclear Waste: Yucca Mountain and EPA Standards :
Yucca Mountain in Nevada is the U.S. Department of Energy’s proposed storage and disposal site for spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive waste. Learn more about the Yucca Mountain project and specific standards set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Nuclear Weapons and Waste :
The National Resources Defense Council plays an important role in the formation of U.S. nuclear nonproliferation, arms control, energy, and environmental policies. Its stated goal is to reduce and ultimately eliminate “unacceptable risks to people and the environment from the exploitation of nuclear energy for both military and peaceful purposes.”
Moon Suggested as Nuclear Waste Repository :
In some quarters, the search for an acceptable site for nuclear waste storage and disposal has turned skyward: to the moon. Critics of the plan say it is impractical because of the expense and the difficulty of depositing radioactive material on the lunar surface without making the moon permanently off-limits for human exploration.

The “greenhouse effect” often gets a bad rap because of its association with global warming, but the truth is we couldn’t live without it.

The heat caused by infrared radiation is absorbed by “greenhouse gases” such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone and methane, which slows its escape from the atmosphere.

Although greenhouse gases make up only about 1 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere, they regulate our climate by trapping heat and holding it in a kind of warm-air blanket that surrounds the planet.

This phenomenon is what scientists call the “greenhouse effect.” Without it, scientists estimate that the average temperature on Earth would be colder by approximately 30 degrees Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit), far too cold to sustain our current ecosystem.

How Do Humans Contribute to the Greenhouse Effect?
While the greenhouse effect is an essential environmental prerequisite for life on Earth, there really can be too much of a good thing.

The problems begin when human activities distort and accelerate the natural process by creating more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere than are necessary to warm the planet to an ideal temperature.
Burning natural gas, coal and oil -including gasoline for automobile engines-raises the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Some farming practices and land-use changes increase the levels of methane and nitrous oxide.
Many factories produce long-lasting industrial gases that do not occur naturally, yet contribute significantly to the enhanced greenhouse effect and “global warming” that is currently under way.
Deforestation- also contributes to global warming. Trees use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen in its place, which helps to create the optimal balance of gases in the atmosphere. As more forests are logged for timber or cut down to make way for farming, however, there are fewer trees to perform this critical function.
Population growth- is another factor in global warming, because as more people use fossil fuels for heat, transportation and manufacturing the level of greenhouse gases continues to increase. As more farming occurs to feed millions of new people, more greenhouse gases enter the atmosphere.

Ultimately, more greenhouse gases means more infrared radiation trapped and held, which gradually increases the temperature of the Earth’s surface and the air in the lower atmosphere.

The Average Global Temperature is Increasing Quickly :
Today, the increase in the Earth’s temperature is increasing with unprecedented speed. To understand just how quickly global warming is accelerating, consider this:

During the entire 20th century, the average global temperature increased by about 0.6 degrees Celsius (slightly more than 1 degree Fahrenheit).

Using computer climate models, scientists estimate that by the year 2100 the average global temperature will increase by 1.4 degrees to 5.8 degrees Celsius (approximately 2.5 degrees to 10.5 degrees Fahrenheit).

Not All Scientists Agree :
While the majority of mainstream scientists agree that global warming is a serious problem that is growing steadily worse, there are some who disagree. John Christy, a professor and director of the Earth System Science Center at the University of Alabama in Huntsville is a respected climatologist who argues that global warming isn’t worth worrying about.

Christy reached that opinion after analyzing millions of measurements from weather satellites in an effort to find a global temperature trend. He found no sign of global warming in the satellite data, and now believes that predictions of global warming by as much as 10 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of the 21st century are incorrect.
What are the effects of global warming and the greenhouse effect?
Scientists agree that even a small increase in the global temperature would lead to significant climate and weather changes, affecting cloud cover, precipitation, wind patterns, the frequency and severity of storms, and the duration of seasons.

Rising temperatures would raise sea levels as well, reducing supplies of fresh water as flooding occurs along coastlines worldwide and salt water reaches inland.

*Many of the world’s endangered species would become extinct as rising temperatures changed their habitat.

*Millions of people also would be affected, especially poor people who live in precarious locations or depend on the land for a subsistence living.

*Certain vector-borne diseases carried by animals or insects, such as malaria, would become more widespread as warmer conditions expanded their range.

Carbon Dioxide Emissions are the Biggest Problem :
Currently, carbon dioxide accounts for more than 60 percent of the enhanced greenhouse effect caused by the increase of greenhouse gases, and the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing by more than 10 percent every 20 years.

If emissions of carbon dioxide continue to grow at current rates, then the level of the gas in the atmosphere will likely double, or possibly even triple, from pre-industrial levels during the 21st century.

Climate Changes are Inevitable :
According to the United Nations, some climate change is already inevitable because of emissions that have occurred since the dawn of the Industrial Age.

While the Earth’s climate does not respond quickly to external changes, many scientists believe that global warming already has significant momentum due to 150 years of industrialization in many countries around the world. As a result, global warming will continue to affect life on Earth for hundreds of years, even if greenhouse gas emissions are reduced and the increase in atmospheric levels halted.

What is Being Done to Reduce Global Warming?
To lessen those long-term effects, many nations, communities and individuals are taking action now to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and slow global warming by reducing dependence on fossil fuels, increasing the use of renewable energy, expanding forests, and making lifestyle choices that help to sustain the environment.

Whether they will be able to recruit enough people to join them, and whether their combined efforts will be enough to head off the most serious effects of global warming, are open questions that can only be answered by future developments.

Burning fossil fuels such as natural gas, coal, oil and gasoline raises the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and carbon dioxide is a major contributor to the greenhouse effect and global warming.

You can help to reduce the demand for fossil fuels, which in turn reduces global warming, by using energy more wisely. Here are 10 simple actions you can take to help reduce global warming.

1. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle :

Do your part to reduce waste by choosing reusable products instead of disposables. Buying products with minimal packaging (including the economy size when that makes sense for you) will help to reduce waste. And whenever you can, recycle paper, plastic, newspaper, glass and aluminum cans. If there isn’t a recycling program at your workplace, school, or in your community, ask about starting one. By recycling half of your household waste, you can save 2,400 pounds of carbon dioxide annually.

2. Use Less Heat and Air Conditioning :

Adding insulation to your walls and attic, and installing weather stripping or caulking around doors and windows can lower your heating costs more than 25 percent, by reducing the amount of energy you need to heat and cool your home.
Turn down the heat while you’re sleeping at night or away during the day, and keep temperatures moderate at all times. Setting your thermostat just 2 degrees lower in winter and higher in summer could save about 2,000 pounds of carbon dioxide each year.

3. Change a Light Bulb :
Wherever practical, replace regular light bulbs with compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs. Replacing just one 60-watt incandescent light bulb with a CFL will save you $30 over the life of the bulb. CFLs also last 10 times longer than incandescent bulbs, use two-thirds less energy, and give off 70 percent less heat.
If every U.S. family replaced one regular light bulb with a CFL, it would eliminate 90 billion pounds of greenhouse gases, the same as taking 7.5 million cars off the road.

4. Drive Less and Drive Smart :

Less driving means fewer emissions. Besides saving gasoline, walking and biking are great forms of exercise. Explore your community mass transit system, and check out options for carpooling to work or school.
When you do drive, make sure your car is running efficiently. For example, keeping your tires properly inflated can improve your gas mileage by more than 3 percent. Every gallon of gas you save not only helps your budget, it also keeps 20 pounds of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.

5. Buy Energy-Efficient Products :

When it’s time to buy a new car, choose one that offers good gas mileage. Home appliances now come in a range of energy-efficient models, and compact florescent bulbs are designed to provide more natural-looking light while using far less energy than standard light bulbs.
Avoid products that come with excess packaging, especially molded plastic and other packaging that can’t be recycled. If you reduce your household garbage by 10 percent, you can save 1,200 pounds of carbon dioxide annually.

6. Use Less Hot Water :

Set your water heater at 120 degrees to save energy, and wrap it in an insulating blanket if it is more than 5 years old. Buy low-flow showerheads to save hot water and about 350 pounds of carbon dioxide yearly. Wash your clothes in warm or cold water to reduce your use of hot water and the energy required to produce it. That change alone can save at least 500 pounds of carbon dioxide annually in most households. Use the energy-saving settings on your dishwasher and let the dishes air-dry.

7. Use the “Off” Switch :

Save electricity and reduce global warming by turning off lights when you leave a room, and using only as much light as you need. And remember to turn off your television, video player, stereo and computer when you’re not using them.
It’s also a good idea to turn off the water when you’re not using it. While brushing your teeth, shampooing the dog or washing your car, turn off the water until you actually need it for rinsing. You’ll reduce your water bill and help to conserve a vital resource.

8. Plant a Tree :

If you have the means to plant a tree, start digging. During photosynthesis, trees and other plants absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. They are an integral part of the natural atmospheric exchange cycle here on Earth, but there are too few of them to fully counter the increases in carbon dioxide caused by automobile traffic, manufacturing and other human activities. A single tree will absorb approximately one ton of carbon dioxide during its lifetime.

9. Get a Report Card from Your Utility Company :

Many utility companies provide free home energy audits to help consumers identify areas in their homes that may not be energy efficient. In addition, many utility companies offer rebate programs to help pay for the cost of energy-efficient upgrades.

10. Encourage Others to Conserve :

Share information about recycling and energy conservation with your friends, neighbors and co-workers, and take opportunities to encourage public officials to establish programs and policies that are good for the environment.

These 10 steps will take you a long way toward reducing your energy use and your monthly budget. And less energy use means less dependence on the fossil fuels that create greenhouse gases and contribute to global warming.